Φώτης Παναγιωτούνης1 & Κωνσταντίνος Μάντζος2
1) PhD, Τμήμα Εκπαίδευσης και Κατάρτισης Μελών, ΚΕΘΕΑ, email: panagiotounisfotis@gmail.com
2) Κοινωνικός Ανθρωπολόγος, ΚΕΘΕΑ ΙΘΑΚΗ
DOI: 10.57160/STXW3666
Περίληψη
Η συμμετοχή σε παρεμβάσεις που βασίζονται στην περιπέτεια φαίνεται ότι μπορεί να προσφέρει πολλαπλά οφέλη στα άτομα που ζουν με διαταραχές χρήσης ουσιών (ΔΧΟ), τόσο σε σωματικό όσο και σε ψυχοκοινωνικό επίπεδο. Ωστόσο, είναι σημαντικό να εξεταστούν οι παράγοντες που κινητοποιούν τα άτομα αυτά να συμμετάσχουν σε τέτοιου τύπου παρεμβάσεις. Η παρούσα μελέτη επιχειρεί να συμβάλει αφενός στην κατανόηση των χαρακτηριστικών της προσωπικότητας των ατόμων που ζουν με ΔΧΟ και αφετέρου να διερευνήσει με ποιους τρόπους τα χαρακτηριστικά αυτά μπορούν να επηρεάσουν το σχεδιασμό παρεμβάσεων που βασίζονται σε αθλήματα περιπέτειας στη φύση. Στο πλαίσιο αυτό πραγματοποιήθηκε η διερεύνηση των εγγενών κινήτρων της Αναζήτησης Διέγερσης-Συναισθημάτων και της Ανάγκης για Επίτευξη στη φύση. Εκατόν εξήντα (160) άτομα που συμμετέχουν σε θεραπεία ΔΧΟ παρείχαν δεδομένα μέσω εργαλείων αυτό-αναφοράς. Σύμφωνα με όσα ανέφεραν οι συμμετέχοντες η ανάγκη τους για επίτευξη κυμαινόταν σε υψηλά επίπεδα. Επίσης, ανέφεραν μέτρια έως υψηλή επιθυμία αναζήτησης νέων εμπειριών μέσω δραστηριοτήτων που ενείχαν αυξημένο επίπεδο πρόκλησης και κινδύνου. Κατά τη διαμόρφωση προσαρμοσμένων παρεμβάσεων που βασίζονται σε αθλήματα περιπέτειας στη φύση για τη θεραπεία ΔΧΟ, αυτά τα χαρακτηριστικά –τα οποία φαίνεται να είναι βασικά δομικά χαρακτηριστικά της προσωπικότητας των ατόμων με ΔΧΟ– πρέπει να λαμβάνονται υπόψη.
Λέξεις κλειδιά: διαταραχές χρήσης ουσιών, αθλητισμός, φύση, περιπέτεια, αναζήτηση διέγερσης-συναισθημάτων, ανάγκη για επίτευξη
To cite this paper:
Panagiotounis, F., & Mantzos, K. (2023). The role of personal traits of Sensation Seeking and Need of Achievement in the design of adventure-based interventions in substance use disorders recovery. EXARTISIS, 41, 9–21.
The role of personal traits of sensation seeking and need of achievement in the design of adventure-based interventions in substance use disorders recovery
Fotis Panagiotounis1 & Κοnstantinos Mantzos2
1) PhD, Department of Education, KETHEA, Greece, email: panagiotounisfotis@gmail.com
2) Social Αnthropologist, KETHEA, Greece
Abstract
Participation in adventure-based interventions appears to offer multiple benefits to individuals living with substance use disorders (SUD), both physically and psychosocially. However, it is important to consider the factors that motivate these individuals to participate in these types of interventions. The present study attempts to contribute both to understanding the personality characteristics of people living with SUD and to explore the ways in which these can influence the design of interventions based on adventure sports. In this context, an investigation of the intrinsic motivations of Sensation Seeking and Need for Achievement in nature was conducted. A hundred and sixty (160) individuals participating in SUD recovery provided data via self-report measures. Participants reported elevated levels of need for achievement in nature, also reporting moderate to high desire to seek new experiences through activities that involved an increased level of challenge and risk. When developing tailored adventure sport-based interventions in SUD recovery, these characteristics –which appear to be key structural personality traits of individuals with SUD– need to be taken into consideration.
Key words: substance use disorders, sport, nature, adventure, sensation seeking, need of achievement
Introduction
According to research, adventure sport-based activities in nature can have a significant therapeutic component, as they may benefit a person’s social, psychological, physical, cognitive, and spiritual well-being by challenging its boundaries (Ewert, 1989; Dickson et al., 2008; Bowler et al., 2010; Voight & Ewert, 2012). Indeed, anyone could benefit from their outdoor experiences, not just to reestablish psychological and physical resources but also to educate themselves through the acquisition of new abilities (Hartig et al., 2010; Garst et al., 2001).
Furthermore, being exposed to nature can have a significant impact on one’s self-concept as it may contribute to enhancing one’s sense of self-esteem and self-confidence, as well as help one manage stress and anxiety by providing a sense of calmness by rejecting negative thoughts that can lead to stressful situations (Kaplan, 1995; Voight & Ewert, 2012; Sidi & Radzi, 2017). In addition, participating in an adventure-based programme may contribute to the development of positive attitudes and behaviours stemming from the capability of such experiences to enforce psychological and behavioural functions, supporting the individual in building important personality traits such as mental resilience and a sense of achievement (Voight & Ewert, 2012; Bowen et al., 2016). In this context, it is widely accepted that engaging in adventure sport-based activities in natural settings can offer unique opportunities to achieve the aforementioned positive results (Dickson et al., 2008; Mitchell, 2013).
For all of these reasons, adventure sport-based activities are successfully used in a variety of mental health contexts as alternative sources of stimulation (Weng & Chiang, 2014; Barton et al., 2011; Buckley & Brough, 2017; Eigenschenk et al., 2019). The positive effect of such activities is also obvious in the prevention and recovery of SUD (Russell et al., 1999; Russell, 2008; Bettmann et al., 2013, Panagiotounis et al, 2020). The experiences acquired through participating in such interventions may act in a positive way to face challenges that arise through the SUD recovery process (Nichols, 1999; Panagiotounis & Theodorakis, 2019; Panagiotounis et al, 2020). In this context, such experiences can support persons undergoing SUD recovery to develop strategies to face substance abstinence and the subsequent negative feelings that occur. At the same time, this could help individuals with SUD feel more confident about themselves by providing them with a sense of accomplishment that they can carry over into their daily lives (Russell et al., 1999; Bettmann et al., 2013).
It is widely accepted that concepts of risk, challenge, and uncertainty, as well as the immediate consequences of one’s actions, are essential components of adventure sport-based activities and also unique aspects of nature (Ewert, 1989; Barnett, 2005; Barton, 2006; Voight & Ewert, 2012; Gass & Russell, 2020; Lee et al., 2015). Specifically, the notion of risk refers to the possibility that a certain action will induce either physical or psychological harm (Barton, 2006). Adventure sport-based activities in nature have the immediate consequence of increasing a person’s perception of natural and psychological risks (Fletcher & Hinkle, 2002) that are connected with the seeking, or avoiding of provocation of such risks and the relevant emotions (Barnett, 2005; Cater, 2006). When people push themselves and take these risks, emotional, behavioral, or cognitive processes are activated, driving them to accomplish things they didn’t think they could, while also realizing they can apply this experience to their everyday lives (Gass & Russell, 2020). In this context, we recognize that risk and challenge are fundamental components of developing effective adventure-based interventions, since they may have a positive impact on an individual’s physical and psychological well-being. However, the benefits that will probably occur through participation in adventure sport-based activities are facilitated by providing the appropriate natural and technical resources, as well as through tailor-made interventions that intentionally function in order to achieve certain goals connected with the individual’s motivations (Ewert, 1989; Dickson et al., 2008; Ewert et al., 2013). Nevertheless, designing such interventions is a multifaceted process that has to include several parameters. Initially, it is primarily to assess the needs, motives, and personal traits of the participants to create a tailored design for the connection of specific activities with specific goals (Tucker & Norton, 2013).
Therefore, one of the key determinants of the effectiveness of adventure sport-based interventions may be thoroughly analyzing the motivation, needs, and personality traits of the participants. It is anticipated that underlining the value of endogenous personal motives of Sensation Seeking and the Need of Achievement of the participants of an adventure-based intervention would provide the necessary and goal-oriented planning in the context of SUD recovery. Ιn this light, adventure sport-based interventions need to develop the right opportunities for individuals undergoing SUD recovery, in order to enhance their participation in adventure activities aiming to achieve multiple beneficial results, much more complex than a simple nature experience.
Sensation Seeking
Probably the most widely read research contribution that relates the sensation-seeking (SS) personality trait with risky behaviours can be found in the work of Marvin Zuckerman. According to Zuckerman (1979), SS is defined as the seeking of multiple, new, complex, and intense emotions and experiences and is characterized by the willingness to assume natural, social, legal, and financial risks in order to serve such experiences. In the previous definition, the intensity of the experience was included as an important element (Zuckerman, 1990), while later the SS trait was associated with other dimensions of the individual’s personality, especially that of impulsivity (Zuckerman, 1994).
Individuals who seek emotional stimulation are not constrained by the environment or by a lack of opportunities (Zuckerman, 1979); instead, they actively participate in emotionally stimulating experiences because they have a strong ability to focus their attention on them, which makes them feel in control of the situation (Hawkridge, 2006). This willingness to take on risks relates to a wide range of behaviors, including driving, health behaviors, gambling, financial activities, alcohol and illegal substance use, sexual behavior, and of course sports (Zuckerman, 1994). It is in this context that we approach sensation seeking (SS) by participating in adventure-based activities which offer extreme excitement and novel experiences (Zuckerman, 1983; Ruch & Zuckerman, 2001).
In light of the aforementioned, the sensation-seeking theory appears to provide a different perspective on the behavioral investigations of SUD (Zuckerman, 1979; Scourfield et al., 1996; Dubey & Arora, 2008; Lynne-Landsman et al., 2011). SS is an important predictive factor related to the initial conditions that are likely to drive an individual to be involved with risky behaviors such as substance use (Hughes, 1993; Franques et al., 2003; Dubey & Arora, 2008; Massah et al., 2014). Thus, measuring and evaluating SS is an important factor in SUD recovery, with its evaluation being proposed as a key element in the planning of tailor-made treatment and should be conducted systematically and taken into account by SUD therapists (Peritogiannis, 2015).
The Need of Achievement
The term “Need of Achievement” (NoA) was first employed by Murray (1938) and is characterized by intense, extended, and repetitive attempts to achieve difficult goals. With this as a starting point, McClelland (1985) realized important contributions to the definition of NoA. More specifically he mentioned that NoA revolves around the emotional satisfaction that is related to the achievement of difficult goals, defining the motivation of achievement as a model of thoughts and emotions linked to planning and attempting excellence.
Finogenow (2017) mentions that setting high success standards by an individual stems from the NoA. Indeed, according to Murray (1938), the strong NoA is related to choosing difficult goals. However, the same does not stand for those with low NoA, as they frequently select easy goals in an effort to reduce the likelihood of failure or extremely challenging goals that virtually guarantee failure (Elliot & Church, 1997; Elliot & Thrash, 2001). On the other hand, NoA increases the likelihood of success, particularly if success is possible, since individuals who have a strong drive for accomplishment look for settings that will enable them to succeed, reinforcing their self-image via the effective use of their abilities (McClelland, 1985; Murray, 1938). As a result, accomplishing high goals requires both a high motivation for achievement and the availability of the necessary skills and resources (Elliot & Church, 1997).
Achievement motivation can be distinguished among intrinsic motives, defined as the realization of activity for personal satisfaction and not due to outbound means, pressure, or rewards, and extrinsic motives that are related to achieving an external result (Ryan & Deci, 2017). The models of achievement for those who are self-determined are not based on extrinsic motivation, but rather emphasize their efforts and persistence in confronting challenges in order to achieve their personal goals, taking on personally the responsibility to find solutions in order to overcome obstacles (Bipp & van Dam 2014; Finogenow, 2017).
NoA expresses itself in several aspects of a person’s daily life and can be found in a variety of activities (Elliot & Church, 1997). As nature is unpredictable and dynamic, requiring rapid and effective responses in a constantly changing situation, it is evident that adventure activities may provide a safe environment, where people can meet their drive to accomplish ambitious and difficult goals (Próchniak, 2016).
Methodology
The present study utilizes a cross-sectional design in order to gain insights into the intrinsic drives of Sensation Seeking (SS) and Need of Achievement (NoA) in natural settings with the intention of illustrating their significance as structural components that should be taken into account when developing adventure sport-based interventions in a context of SUD recovery.
Setting
The individuals that participated in the research were at the time of data collection following a SUD recovery program within the Therapy Center for Depended Individuals (KETHEA). KETHEA is the largest network in Greece offering recovery services to individuals with SUD. KETHEA’s recovery programs offer psychosocial support without pharmaceutical substitutes, facing SUD recovery through a holistic approach, and engaging with the families and society at large (www.kethea.gr). All participants were informed in advance about the research design, the confidentiality principle, and the anonymity of data collection and analysis, and were asked to sign a written consent form. Furthermore, respondents were also aware that they could drop out of the study at any point they might wish to do so.
Data collection tools
To support the research objectives and data collection the following evaluation tools were employed:
- Sensation seeking Scale (SSS-V), (Zuckerman, 1994)
The Sensation Seeking Scale is the broader utilized standard self-reported measurement for evaluating the total structure of SS and is related to a wide array of new experience activities, characterized by a high degree of challenge, intensity, and assuming of risk (Cronbach’s α: 0.83 to 0.86). The scale is comprised of 40 items with partitioned answers, which are scored as a sum. The higher the score (with 40 as the maximum), the more likely you are to seek out novel and intense sensations. The scale is divided into four sub-scales that include 10 items: a) Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS), namely the desire of individuals to be involved in risky physical activities or sports that offer unusual sensations, b) Experience Seeking (ES), meaning the desire to seek new experiences through extreme actions, an unusual way of life and travel, c) Disinhibition (DIS), that is sensation-seeking through other individuals, participation in parties, alcohol consumption and sex, d) Boredom Susceptibility (BS), the aversion to stable, nonstimulating environments or individuals. The Sensation Seeking scale has been translated into Greek by Beloyiannis et al. (2007). Reliability was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha (α = .76). In this research, in order to define the degree of evaluation of Sensation Seeking pursued in adventure activities, the data out of two sub-scales were utilized: a) Thrill and Adventure Seeking (TAS) and b) Experience Seeking (ES).
- Need for Achievement in Outdoor Recreation Scale, (Próchniak, 2016)
The scale Outdoor Recreation Need for Achievement Scale (ORNAS) constitutes a new self-reported tool aiming to bring forward behaviors related to natural settings (Cronbach’s α: .93). The scale includes 10 items that are evaluated in a 4point Likert scale with 1: definitely false, 2: probably false, 3: probably true, 4: definitely true. Reliability was calculated using Cronbach’s alpha (α = .84).
Data analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS software (version 25). Descriptive data were generated for all variables. Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient and linear regression was used to study the linear relationship between the variables.
Results
Descriptives
The research sample consisted of 160 polydrug users under SUD recovery, 16 were female, and 144 were male. In Europe, women are approximately 25% of all people with serious substance use disorder, while more or less 20% of them undergoing treatment (EMCDDA, 2017). 35% of the sample was <30 years of age, while 65% was >30 years of age. The overwhelmingly larger percentage (90.6%) had an experience in substance abuse that superseded 5 years, with a quite large percentage (64.4%) exceeding 10 years. With respect to the substance used, it is quite important to point out that the larger percentage of the sample were polydrug users (cannabis 83.8%, heroin 75%, and cocaine 77.5%). Table 1 presents a summary of the sample characteristics.
TABLE 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE
| Gender at birth | |
| Male | 144 |
| Female | 16 |
| Age | % |
| <20 | 5,0 |
| 21-30 | 30,0 |
| 31-40 | 48,8 |
| 41-50 | 13,8 |
| >50 | 2,5 |
| Previous engangement in substance use recovery | |
| Yes | 37,5 |
| No | 62,5 |
| Previous experience in substance use (years) | |
| <5 | 9,4 |
| 5-10 | 26,3 |
| 11-15 | 25,6 |
| 16-20 | 22,5 |
| 21< | 16,3 |
| Substance use | |
| Heroin | 75 |
| Cocaine | 77,5 |
| Cannabis | 83,8 |
| Amphetamines | 48,1 |
| Ecstasy | 47,5 |
| Alcohol | 53,1 |
In total, the respondents had moderately high scores in seeking stimulation behaviors through their involvement in risky sport activities, TAS (Μ = 7.05, SD = 2.34) and through seeking new experiences, ES (M= 6.75, SD=2.09). The findings of the ORNAS (M=2.73, SD =.717) construct the assessment of the motivation for taking part in adventure programs in natural settings, resulting in the overall conclusion that the respondents seek out novel, challenging experiences in nature, while also demonstrating a need for achieving their goals (Table 2).
Pearson’s Correlation and Linear regression
A Pearson correlation analysis was conducted in order to assess the statistical relationship between the variables. There was a significant positive correlation between the ORNAS scale and the ES sub-scale (r=.180, p<.05), and the TAS sub-scale (r=.512, p<.001). What clearly can be deduced from this data is that seeking and creating new challenging experiences further supports the motivation to achieve adventure activities within natural settings.
TABLE 2. MEAN, STANDARD DEVIATION, AND CORRELATIONS MATRIX
| Variable | M | SD | 1 | 2 | |
| 1 | ES | 6.75 | 2.09 | ||
| 2 | TAS | 7.05 | 2.34 | .211** | |
| 3 | ORNAS | 2.73 | .717 | .180* | .512** |
*p < .05. **p < .01.
A standard regression analysis was conducted to further explore the relationship between adventure and experience seeking and Need for Achievement in Outdoor, entering ORNAS as the dependent variable and TAS and ES as independent variables (Table 3). The results showed that 27% of the variability of the dependent variable ORNAS was explained by the independent variables TAS and ES, F(2, 157)=28.700, p<.000).
TABLE 3. STANDARD REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF THE ADVENTURE AND EXPERIENCE SEEKING ON THE NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT IN OUTDOOR ACTIVITIES
| Model | R | R Square | Sign (anova) |
| 1 | .517 | .268 | .000 |
Discussion
Several reports have shown that the effectiveness of alternative arousal triggers, such as adventure sport-based activities in nature, is suitable as a complementary therapeutic intervention in the process of SUD recovery (Bennett et al., 1998; D’Silva et al., 2001; Bowen et al., 2016; Panagiotounis et al., 2020). However, a crucial component of their effective implementation in the context of SUD recovery is developing and choosing the appropriate adventure-based activities. In light of this, the level of risk-taking and challenge of adventure sport-based activities are directly related to the reinforcement of such intervention’s efficacy among the target population.
This study set out with the aim of drawing conclusions concerning the behavior and motives of individuals with SUD, as related to their participation in adventure-based sport activities. In this context, it is crucial to gather relevant information on personal traits that might make up the target group profile when developing an intervention of this nature. The selection of adventure sport-based activities needs to include elements that will increase motivation among participants, while at the same time being connected with therapeutic goals in order to establish the conditions required for change (Bowen & Neill, 2013; Gass & Russell, 2020; Fletcher & Hinkle, 2002). Thus, it becomes apparent that personal traits that relate to Sensation Seeking and the Need of Achievement in natural settings should be taken into account during designing and implementing adventure sport-based interventions, tailored to the target population of individuals with SUD.
The study results suggest that individuals with SUD might be further attracted by new challenging experiences and risk-taking, as it is aligned with their motivation for achievement, leading to increased pleasure and fulfilment that stems out of adventure sport-based activities in nature. It is widely accepted that sensation-seeking characteristics correlate with behaviors that are linked with substance abuse (Zuckerman, 1979; Dubey & Arora, 2008; Lynne-Landsman et al., 2011). Indeed, our results seem to confirm the view that substance users seek new challenges and experiences, without being held back by risk-taking (Scourfield et al., 1996). Scores in the sub-factors “Thrill and Adventure Seeking” and “Experience Seeking”, confirm this tendency to interpret individual behavior in adventure activities in nature. Furthermore, a relevant conclusion can be drawn from the use of the ORNA scale, as it seems that the need for achievement is an important parameter and motivation factor supporting participation in such activities, confirming the adventure behavior of these individuals.
In addition, quite important seems the positive correlation between the two sub-factors Thrill and Adventure Seeking and Experience Seeking with ORNA scale, and confirms the relationship between them (Próchniak, 2016). Further analysis showed that the tendency of these individuals to seek new experiences and challenges, through risky and impulsive activities in nature, can predict their need for achievement in a natural setting. Together these results provide important insights that individuals with SUD have significant sensation-seeking personality traits, demonstrating a high motivation for achievement in adventure sport-based activities. One possible explanation is that deficits in self-regulation are mirrored in the spontaneous impulsivity that these individuals exhibit as a result of chronic substance abuse (Bankston et al., 2009; Ersche et al., 2010; Glicksohn et al., 2018).
However, our study also has some limitations; therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution. More specifically, one of the major limitations of this study includes the fact that the data are drawn from self-reporting tools. Another important limitation of this study is that the sample was comprised of individuals with different levels of participation and experience in adventure-based activities, as well as different challenge intensities. An additional limitation is that there was quite an extended age range, and different age levels are represented in a way that would not allow to break down results into age groups. Furthermore, results concerning gender differentiation cannot lead to conclusions, due to the low representation of women in the research sample.
Conclusion
In conclusion, what emerges from the results reported in the current study seems to confirm our position that Sensation Seeking and Need for Achievement in Outdoor Recreation factors reflect the intrinsic motives related to participating in an adventure sport-based intervention in natural settings for individuals with SUD. In spite of its limitations, the study certainly adds to our understanding of how these factors are interrelated and can be combined in order to select activities that are suitable for the level of challenge and risk, aiming to respond to the actual needs of these individuals, raising their motivation to participate, and thus enhancing the degree of effectiveness in utilizing adventure sport-based interventions in SUD recovery. In this context, we propose that adventure sport-based interventions tailor-made for the target population of individuals with SUD may involve activities characterised by a high degree of challenge, reinforcing the sense of achievement, in a structured and at the same time feasible way.
However, it is important to point out that adventure sport-based activities could include elements of risk and challenge that might lead to uncertain and adverse results, both on a physical and psychological level. An important factor in this is that the perceived risk might be far greater than the real one. Even so, the right management of risk can have positive effects on an individual’s personality development (Gass & Russell, 2020). In this sense, looking into attitudes and behaviors towards risk has to assume an important role in designing such interventions in the specific target group, securing both the emotional and physical safety of the participants (Tucker, 2009; Romer et al., 2010). For these reasons, developing and applying the right protocols for managing risk should be a priority when applying outdoor programmes to a specific population.
Regardless of the results brought forward by the present research, we propose that for a complete analysis of the participation motivation of individuals with SUD in high-risk activities, such as adventure sport-based activities, other variables need to be taken into consideration related to other personality traits, such as self-efficacy and self-esteem. Furthermore, future research should be undertaken to explore further the differentiation based on age and gender, aiming to develop more tailor-made interventions for the target population of individuals with SUD.
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